Msomba B.H., Ndaki P.M. and Joseph C.O. (2024) Sugarcane sustainability in a changing climate: a systematic review on pests, diseases, and adaptive strategies. Front. Agron. 6:1423233. doi: 10.3389/fagro.2024.1423233

The cultivation of sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) in the face of climate change requires robust strategies for managing pests, diseases, and weeds. This systematic review exposes critical deficiencies in current practices and underscores the need for climate-adaptive strategies. Climate change differentially influences pest behaviour, disease progression, and weed growth across various regions, yet the lack of region-specific responses impairs effective management. 

The review emphasizes the necessity for localized approaches that consider specific climatic conditions and the development of predictive models to anticipate pest and disease outbreaks. These models include Decision Support Systems (DSS), Support Vector Machines (SVM), Susceptible-Exposed- Infectious-Recovered (SEIR) models, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Species Distribution Models (SDMs), Agricultural Production Systems sIMulator (APSIM), and Integrated Pest Management (IPM). 

Crucial strategies encompass integrated pest and disease management, adaptive breeding, precision agriculture, and ongoing innovation. Precision agriculture technologies, such as remote sensing and drones, enable early detection and prompt interventions. By adopting these adaptive measures and addressing existing research gaps, the sugarcane industry can bolster its resilience and maintain productivity amidst evolving climatic conditions.

Matingas, R. M. and Ndaki, P. M. (2024). Efforts and Prospects towards Climate Change Adaptation through Urban Land Use Planning in Dar es Salaam. African Journal on Land Policy and Geospatial Sciences, 7 (3): 807-826. https://doi.org/10.48346/IMIST.PRSM/ajlp-gs.v7i3.47495

Flooding in Dar es Salaam is greatly contributed by the overall increase in daily rainfall amounts, generally identified as rainfall variability which contributes to the overall climate change. Climate change adaptation is the spearhead initiative towards moderating the potential damages associated with actual or anticipated changes in climate. Through variety of options, urban land use planning has emerged as among the options towards climate change adaptation implementation. 

This study aimed at exploring the existing efforts and prospects for integrating climate change adaptation into urban land use planning in the rapid urbanizing city of Dar es Salaam. 

Teta and Sokoni subwards were selected as case studies where review of documents, field observation, geospatial mapping, household surveys and key informant interviews were the data collection methods used. QGIS, SPSS and Global Mapper were the main softwares utilized in analyzing the data obtained. 

Findings demonstrate that the preparation of detail planning schemes, construction of stormwater drainage and implementation of building codes are the most appealing efforts executed towards enhancing climate change adaptation through urban land use planning. The notable prospects towards enhancing climate change adaption through urban land use planning are mainly technological advancement, supportive legal frameworks and robust involvement of actors. It was also identified that, urban land use planning isn’t a stand-alone component contributing to overall climate change adaptation hence other components such as; adaptation measures, institutional framework, resources and capacities were vital in the integration process.

Onesmo, C., Mabhuye, E.B. & Ndaki, P.M. (2023). A Synergy Between Sustainable Solid Waste Management and the Circular Economy in Tanzania Cities: a Case of Scrap Metal Trade in Arusha City. Urban Forum. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12132-023-09493-z

The increased demand for secondary materials, particularly scrap metals, in cities due to development activities in both emerging economies and developing countries has increased the demand for recycling materials. It accelerated the growth of the circular economy and climate-smart development. 

This paper investigated the synergy between sustainable solid waste management and the circular economy in Tanzanian cities by examining the scrap business’s categories, quantity, market, and nature and the scrap business’s environmental benefits in Arusha. 

The study found that iron steel, cast iron, and aluminum were the most common scrap metal recovered and traded in Arusha. Offices and institutions, households, and garages were the primary sources of scraps. Over 314 tonnes of scrap metal were traded monthly in the city. The scrap business helped the steel industries save 300 tons of iron ore, 164 tons of coal, and 64 tons of bauxite while lowering their monthly energy consumption by 56%. Scrap metal trade contributes significantly to recycling, climate-smart, circular economy, and improving livelihoods. 

As a result, we call for a synchronized sustainable development and solid waste management system that connects product design, development manufacturing, and end-of-life products to improve the circular economy.

Ndaki, P., Kyaruzi, L. and Kangalawe, R. (2023). The Role of Renewable Energy Policies for Effective Climate Change Mitigation Actions in Tanzania - A systematic review. Journal of Geographical Association of Tanzania, 42, (2): 23-52.

The use of renewable energy sources is one of the measures that have had a significant contribution in reducing greenhouse gas emissions while ensuring sustainable development. Hence, this necessitates the need to ensure a sustainable national socio-economic development pathway that supports low emissions through the development and use of renewable energy. 

This paper analyses data from a systematic review that was conducted to understand how research is approaching the state of public policies of renewable energy and climate change in Tanzania. The review screened more than 500 published papers and unpublished reports containing 120 unique studies related to renewable energy, climate change and sustainable development. 

Results indicate that renewable energy sources have the potential of contributing to the reduction of about two-thirds of the total global energy carbon dioxide emission. The results further indicate that renewable energy may save carbon dioxide for the range of global cumulative savings of about 220–560 GtCO2 in the period 2010–2050. The results also show that Tanzania has targeted to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by between 30% and 35% by 2030. 

Thus, more appropriate renewable energy policies would enable the country to further efficiently contribute to the global goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions, while achieving its sustainable development. This underscores the need for Tanzania to adopt appropriate policies for the utilisation of renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydro and geothermal energy for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, while achieving its sustainable development goals.

Silas, Z. and Ndaki, P. (2022). Opportunities and Challenges Experienced by Smallholder Farmers in Using Climate Smart Agriculture to Adapt to Climate Variability and Change in Kilosa District, Tanzania. Tanzania Journal of Development Studies, 20, (1): 136-156

 This study assesses opportunities and challenges experienced by smallholder farmers in using climate smart agriculture (CSA) to adapt to climate change and variability in Kilosa District, Tanzania. The objective of this study was to establish the opportunities and challenges that arise due to the adoption of CSA practises in enhancing crop production and adaptive capacity in improving food security among smallholder farmers. 

Data were collected from 100 purposively selected crop farmers’ households using a questionnaire, focus group discussions, and observation; as well as conducting transect walks. Obtained quantitative data were analysed using frequency counts, percentages and inferential statistics, in particular chi-square cross-tabulation to determine relationships between variables. The analysis of qualitative data involved the identification, examination and interpretation of patterns and themes that arose from the textual data. 

Findings revealed that the opportunities brought about by climatic smart agriculture included high demand for minimum water usage technologies, and the adoption of drought-resistant crop varieties. Shortened rains, conflicts between farmers and livestock keepers, and the lack of CSA knowledge were found to be the major challenges. 

The study concluded that CSA practises are of potential benefits in the adaptation to climate change and/or variability. The study recommends supporting services such as agricultural subsidies, technologies, trainings in CSA practises and funding to smallholder farmers to enhance their adaptive capacity and long-term resilience to adverse impacts of climate change and variability.

EK Nassary, BH Msomba, WE Masele, P.M. Ndaki, CA Kahangwa (2022). Exploring urban green packages as part of Nature-based Solutions for climate change adaptation measures in rapidly growing cities of the Global South. Journal of Environmental Management, 310 (2)

Given a lot of elusive information on the use and implementation of Nature-based Solutions (NbS) in the Global South, this review provides a synthesis of the evidence on the: - (1) distribution of urban green technologies in form of arboriculture and urban agriculture as a part of NbS packages for the sustainability of cities against population growth and impact of climate change; and (2) options of integrating and mainstreaming various NbS packages into city development policies, planning processes, and decision-making agendas. The sustainability of urban green as part of NbS packages and the usefulness for improvement of livelihoods is determined by the spatial (geographical location) and temporal (time of action) scales, and socio-ecological and institutional factors. Various NbS packages have shown the ability for use as climate change adaptation measures throughout the world. These functions include protection from soil erosion, protection from inland flooding, buffering natural resources against drier and more variable climates, protection from coastal hazards and sea-level rise, moderation of urban heatwaves and effects of heat island, and managing storm-water and flooding in urban areas.

Furthermore, the benefits of urban agriculture and arboriculture include use as sources of food and generation of income; improve recreation and social interactions, and the sustainability of biodiversity. They also mitigate the impact of environmental pollution and climate change through reduction of gas emissions and act as carbon sinks. 

While the starting capital and lack of policy on urban agriculture and arboriculture in many countries, the importance of the industry is inevitably a useful agenda especially in the Global South due to vulnerability to the impact of climate change. This review also suggests the inclusion of all institutions, governments, and relevant stakeholders to emphasize gender sensitization at all levels of planning and decision-making in food production and adaptation measures to climate change.

Ndaki, P. M., Erick, F. and Moshy, V. (2021). Challenges Posed by Climate Change and Non-Climate Factors on Conservation of Edible Orchid in Southern Highlands of Tanzania: The Case of Makete District.  Journal of Global Ecology and Environment, 13 (4): 144-167

There is sufficient evidence supporting the fact that climate change and variability are pervasive realities that are strongly impacting both human and natural systems, including conservation of edible orchids in Southern Highland of Tanzania. This study investigated the role of climate variability and/or climate change as well as underlying non-climate factors negatively affecting conservation of edible orchids, and exploring potential approaches and strategic interventions for enhancing conservation of these edible orchids in Makete district. Both quantitative and qualitative data collection methods were used to obtain data involving smallholder farmers as well as government officials and local communities.  

Results from selected meteorological station and community perceptions indicate that there has been an increase in average maximum temperatures, and both dry and wet years with varying magnitudes during the past four decades. Other climatic stresses include late onset and late cessation of rainfall in both short and long rain seasons. It was further found that there are threats for extinction of edible orchid species due to climate change impacts i.e. increase of temperature and decline of rainfall challenging conservation of the orchids. In addition, the study identified several non-climate factors affecting the conservation of edible orchids including expansion of agriculture, population growth and deforestation. 

The study concluded that the conservation of edible orchid species is increasingly becoming a serious challenge and that both climate and non climate factors are exacerbating the challenge. To enhance sustainable conservation of the orchids, this study recommends promotion of conservation education and awareness creation. Likewise, domestication and restoration of edible orchids is recommended to reduce the risk of its extinction. Finally, promotion of alternative income generating activities in the area will be useful in reducing the pressure and demand of edible orchids in the study area.

Kyaruzi, L., Ndaki, P. M. and Kangalawe, R. Y. M. (2021). Analyzing Climate Change Mitigation Policy Options in the Renewable Energy Sub-Sector in Tanzania. Tanzania Journal of Science 47(4)

Public policies influence reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. Also the extent to which policies are developed and implemented can influence the achievement of the national, regional and international climate change mitigation policy framework in the renewable energy sub-sector. 

This paper provides a critical overview of key policy options influencing the development of renewable energy sub-sector through climate change mitigation policy options in Tanzania. Questionnaire surveys were used to collect primary data from 100 relevant experts who represented 64 organizations in Tanzania. Secondary data were collected by literature review. 

The state of climate change mitigation policy options in the renewable energy sub-sector was assessed by using Statistical Product and Service Solutions (SPSS) version 26.0 and content analysis. The results showed Tanzania lacks adequate climate change mitigation policy and renewable energy policy frameworks. 

A specific national climate change policy and national renewable energy policy are needed to guide stakeholders to undertake climate change mitigation actions in the renewable energy sub-sector in Tanzania. Perceptions gained and recommendations made are essential for undertaking climate change mitigation actions in Tanzania, and can be relevant for other developing countries because of similar climate change mitigation contexts.

Msomba, B.H; Ndaki, P.M. and Nassary, E. K. (2021). Assessing Impact of Climate Change and Extreme Weather Events on the 

Sustainability of Sugarcane Production. Journal of Global Agriculture and Ecology. 11 (4): 33-45

The aim of this study was to examine the trends of temperature and rainfall changes and the associated effects in the production of sugarcane in developing countries. 

This study was conducted in Tanzania and the information gathered included the state of climate change and variability for the past 30 years and other associated climate factors affecting the sugarcane industry. Climate data (rainfall and temperature) of the past 30 years (1988–2018) was obtained from Kilombero Sugar Company Ltd and Mahenge weather stations. A cross-sectional one-point-in-time approach was used in obtaining other relevant information from the respondents in the study area. Ordinary workers, including casual and permanent, contractors, out-growers, and company officials were interviewed. A representative sample for the study consisted of 144 respondents (equivalent to 63% of the target population) and 30 key informants. Results indicated that temperatures increased from 15 to 35.4 0C and rainfall decreased from 2074.6 to 406.4 mm for the period from 1988 to 2018. 

The study found that the most pronounced climate factors other than temperature and rainfall were the extreme weather events (51.8%), drought (54.9%), and floods (3.5%). It was concluded that climate factors are the important drivers in the sustainability of the global sugarcane industry and their change and variability are accelerated by a number of factors. Based on the findings of this study, more studies are to be conducted that accommodate the relationship between climate factors (temperature, rainfall) and sugarcane yields over the past 30 years and monitor any further changes in these parameters.

Msomba, B.H; Ndaki, P.M. and Nassary, E. K. (2021). Assessing Adaptation Measures to Climate Change Applied by Out-Growers for the Sustainable Production of Sugarcane in Tanzania. Journal of Global Agriculture and Ecology. 12 (1): 18-29.

This study assessed the adaptation measures to climate change applied by the out-growers to the sustainable production of sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) in Tanzania. Out-growers at Kilombero Sugar Company Ltd, one of the five sugarcane companies in Tanzania were the study population due to high volume of sugarcane production. 

The data was collected using interviews of key informants and survey questionnaires in the sugarcane community (out-growers). A sample used in this study was 63% of the study population plus 30 key informants. Results indicated that climate adaptation measures of out-growers included land intensification (15.4% and 19.4%), use of field borders (49.3% and 53.3%), enhanced nutrient management (11.8% and 15.8%), crop rotation (7.6% and 11.6%), cover crops (5.6% and 9.6%), use of nitrogen (N) fertilizers at 50 and 100 kg N ha-1 (5.4% and 9.4%) in cane fields, reduced tillage (1.4% and 5.4%), irrigation (1.4% and 5.4%), and use of pesticides (2.1% and 6.1%). The test for association showed that Likelihood Chi-square was not significant (p = 0.676) hence the practices were independent of the site and the out-growers. 

Results also indicated that the climate non-adaptation practices were deforestation during land preparation (32.3%), industrial emissions during cane processing (12.9%), and overgrazing and farming near catchment areas (9.7%) in closer proximity to the sugarcane industry. The test for association showed that Likelihood Chi-square was significant (p = 0.002) hence each practice is site-specific and it does not have any association with the same practice performed in either of the site. Furthermore, of the identified additional practices that favour adaptation to climate change, the test showed that Likelihood Chi-square was significant (p = 0.051) indicating that if any practice is conducted at one site, then the same practice and its magnitude is equally to be applied to the other site as a climate adaptation measure for the sustainable sugarcane production by the out-growers.

Temba, P., Pauline, N.M. and Ndaki, P. (2020). Living and Responding to Climate Variability and Change among Coffee and Banana Farmers in the Highlands of Moshi Rural District, Tanzania. In: Climate Change Impacts and  Sustainability, Ecosystems of Tanzania. 

Yanda, P., Mung'ong'o, C. and Mabhuye, E. (Eds). CABI Climate Change Series.

Newell P, Taylor O, Naess LO, Thompson J, Mahmoud H, Ndaki P., Rurangwa R and Teshome A (2019). Climate Smart Agriculture? 

Governing the Sustainable Development Goals in Sub- Saharan Africa. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 3:55. doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2019.00055

This paper examines the political economic and governance challenges faced by African governments in operationalizing Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) as part of their pursuit of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). There is a need to enrich our understanding of the diverse contexts and ways in which governments will have to navigate and address the inevitable choices and conflicts, synergies and trade-offs that will characterize efforts to simultaneously implement these global goals. 

Here we seek to develop an account of why and how countries are managing the interrelationship between SDGs, particularly those associated with food security and climate action. We develop explanations for the diversity in approaches and provide an initial assessment of what the consequences are for policy and practice. The analysis is informed by the contrasting experiences of four Eastern African countries, Kenya, Tanzania, Ethiopia, and Rwanda, as they seek to build more “climate resilient” food and agricultural systems that
are compatible with achieving the SDGs.

Liwenga, E. T., Ndaki, P., Chengula, F., and Kalokola, R. (2019). Coastal Communities’ Perceptions on Climate Change Impacts and Implications for Adaptation Strategies in Mtwara, Southern Tanzania. In Yanda, P. Z., Bryceson, I., Mwevura, H. and 

Mung’ong’o, C. G. (eds). Climate Change and Coastal Resources in Tanzania:  Studies on Socio-Ecological Systems’ Vulnerability, 

Resilience and Governance. Springer Nature, Switzerland.

This chapter discusses vulnerability and adaptation of the coastal communities to climate change impacts with the aim of contributing to an understanding on how vulnerability and livelihoods are constructed among coastal communities, with particular focus on Mtwara communities along the southern coast of Mtwara Region, Tanzania. This study aimed at identifying pathways to reduce vulnerability
and enhance resilience of livelihoods of the concerned coastal communities.

The study was conducted in four villages purposively selected based on the existing diversity reflecting issues related to fishing as well as farming livelihoods. The selection of the villages was also made to cover both the coastal strip and the nearby zone, to capture issues related to coastal fishing and farming. A total of 200 households were included in the survey, 122 of whom were males. The research methods used in the two phases included key informant interviews, FGDs, transect walks and on-sight observations. The study also employed an integrated assessment of socioecological systems’ vulnerability to climate change and variability as well as adaptive capacity and the implications of these in resilience. Climatic data from the TMA were also obtained in order to complement the observations from the field. 

Data from this study show that challenges and impacts associated with climate change are evident in this coastal environment of Tanzania. Common impacts included destruction of coral reefs, coastal erosion, destruction of coastal infrastructures and human settlements. They also included intrusion of seawater into freshwater wells and crop fields in the areas. Sea level rise was probably the most challenging climate change issue in the region since it threatened not only the livelihoods of the already stressed coastal communities but also the economy and integrity of the coastal ecosystems and resources.

Grothmann, T., Petzold, M., Ndaki, P., Kakembo, V., Siebenhüner, B., Kleyer, M., Yanda, P., and Ndou, N. (2017). Vulnerability

Assessment in African Villages under Conditions of Land Use and Climate Change: Case studies from Mkomazi and Keiskamma

Sustainability, 9(6), 976; doi:10.3390/su9060976

While most climate change vulnerability assessments focus on regional or city-levels, this paper studies villages and their different forms of vulnerability vis-à-vis climate change. In the African context, the village level proves to be central for land-use related decision-making given the traditional role of village communities. 

The paper analyses two different regions, namely the Mkomazi Water Basin in Tanzania and the Keiskamma River Catchment in South Africa. Due to the differing roles of agriculture, income sources and village structures, we developed and applied specific vulnerability indicators in the different regions. In both regions, we harness the Socio-Ecological Systems Framework to study explanatory factors for the variation in vulnerability between villages. In doing so, vulnerability has been found to be determined by an aggregate of ecological factors including water availability and soil depletion and social determinants including conflicts, strength of institutions and leadership as well as knowledge. 

Climate-change related factors play a role with regard to rainfall frequency and quantities, but need to be analysed together with other drivers of change, including population dynamics and migration. Our comparative conclusions focus on the need for explicit and clear institutional structures, legitimized leadership and good knowledge about land use options and their consequences.